Chapter 2.12 turns mineral recognition and refining into a state procedure so ores become certified metals—taxable, storable, and strategically deployable. It defines practical tests to identify and grade ores/exudates using observable markers and water/fire behavior. It prescribes pratīvāpa (flux/additive) and treatments to purify, stabilize, and standardize metal outputs. Mineral expertise is shifted from private craft to state-controlled protocol, reducing adulteration and leakage. Metallurgical standardization is linked to kośa expansion, enabling stronger danda and sustained yuddha capacity. The chapter builds an administrative bridge from janapada resource geography to the treasury, mint, armory, and trade supply chains.
Sutra 1
भूतपूर्वमभुतपूर्वं वा भूमिप्रस्तररसधातुमत्यर्थवर्णगौरवमुग्रगन्धरसं परीक्षेत ॥ कZ_०२.१२.०१ ॥
He should examine mineral exudates/ores from earth and rock—whether previously known or newly encountered—by (their) intense colour, heaviness, and strong smell/taste.
Sutra 2
पर्वतानामभिज्ञातोद्देशानां बिलगुहोपत्यकालयनगूढखातेष्वन्तः प्रस्यन्दिनो जम्बूचूततालफलपक्वहरिद्राभेदगुडहरितालमनःशिलाक्षौद्रहिङ्गुलुकपुण्डरीकशुकमयूरपत्त्रवर्णाः सवर्णोदकौषधिपर्यन्ताश्चिक्कणा विशदा भारिकाश्च रसाः काञ्चनिकाः ॥ कZ_०२.१२.०२ ॥
In known mountain tracts—within caves, grottoes, valleys, shelters, and concealed pits—there occur oozing mineral essences whose colours resemble jambu, mango, and palm fruit, ripe turmeric, molasses, orpiment, realgar, honey, cinnabar, a white lotus, a parrot, or peacock-feather; with similarly coloured water and vegetation around; they are smooth, clear, and heavy—(these are) gold-bearing exudates.
Sutra 3
अप्सु निष्ठ्यूतास्तैलवद्विसर्पिणः षङ्कमलग्राहिणश्च ताम्ररूप्ययोः शतादुपरि वेद्धारः ॥ कZ_०२.१२.०३ ॥
When spat into water, if it spreads like oil and takes on a conch- or lotus-like pattern, it is a piercing/assaying substance yielding copper or silver in excess of a hundred (units).
Sutra 4
तत्प्रतिरूपकमुग्रगन्धरसं शिलाजतु विद्यात् ॥ कZ_०२.१२.०४ ॥
Its look-alike, possessing a strong smell and taste, should be recognized as śilājatu.
Sutra 5
पीतकास्ताम्रकास्ताम्रपीतका वा भूमिप्रस्तरधातवो भिन्ना नीलराजीवन्तो मुद्गमाषकृसरवर्णा वा दधिबिन्दुपिण्डचित्रा हरिद्राहरीतकीपद्मपत्त्रशैवलयकृत्प्लीहानवद्यवर्णा भिन्नाश्चुञ्चुवालुकालेखाबिन्दुस्वस्तिकवन्तः सुगुलिका अर्चिष्मन्तस्ताप्यमाना न भिद्यन्ते बहुफेनधूमाश्च सुवर्णधातवः प्रतीवापार्थास्ताम्ररूप्यवेधनाः ॥ कZ_०२.१२.०५ ॥
Gold ores from earth/rock may be yellowish, coppery, or copper-yellow; when broken they may show blue streaks like a blue lotus, or colours like green gram, black gram, or rice-gruel; or be mottled like curd-drops and lumps; or like turmeric, harītakī, lotus-leaf, algae, artificial verdigris, spleen-colour, or flawless hues. When broken they may bear lines, dots, sand-like grains, and even swastika-like marks; they appear as small rounded pellets, are lustrous, and when heated do not split; they emit abundant froth and smoke. These are gold ores, suitable for alloying, and capable of ‘piercing’ (assaying/indicating) copper and silver.
Sutra 6
शङ्खकर्पूरस्फटिकनवनीतकपोतपारावतविमलकमयूरग्रीवावर्णाः सस्यकगोमेदकगुडमत्स्यण्डिकावर्णाः कोविदारपद्मपाटलीकलायक्षौमातसीपुष्पवर्णाः ससीसाः साञ्जना विस्रा भिन्नाः श्वेताभाः कृष्णाः कृष्णाभाः श्वेताः सर्वे वा लेखाबिन्दुचित्रा मृदवो ध्मायमाना न स्फुटन्ति बहुफेनधूमाश्च रूप्यधातवः ॥ कZ_०२.१२.०६ ॥
Silver ores have colours like conch, camphor, crystal, butter, pigeon, dove, a clear white tone, or peacock-neck; also like mustard, gomeda, jaggery, or sugar crystals; and like kovidāra, lotus, pāṭalī, pea, linen, or flax-flowers. They may contain lead and collyrium-like matter, have a strong smell, and when broken appear whitish, black, blackish-white, or whitish-black; in all cases they are mottled with lines and dots, are soft, and when blown/heated do not burst; they emit abundant froth and smoke—these are silver ores.
Sutra 7
सर्वधातूनां गौरववृद्धौ सत्त्ववृद्धिः ॥ कZ_०२.१२.०७ ॥
For all metals/mineral-ores, an increase in heaviness (specific weight) indicates an increase in the metal-yield (sattva).
Sutra 8
तेषामशुद्धा मूढगर्भा वा तीक्ष्णमूत्रक्षरभाविता राजवृक्षवटपीलुगोपित्तरोचनामहिषखरकरभमूत्रलेण्डपिण्डबद्धास्तत्प्रतीवापास्तदवलेपा वा विशुद्धाः स्रवन्ति ॥ कZ_०२.१२.०८ ॥
Impure ores/metals, or those with a “dull/blocked core” (mūḍhagarbha), when treated with strong urine and alkaline agents and bound into pellets with (additives such as) rājavṛkṣa, vaṭa, pīlu, cow-bile, rocanā, and the urine and dung of buffalo, donkey, and camel—either as flux-additions (pratīvāpa) or as surface-coatings (avalepa)—flow out in purified form.
Sutra 9
यवमाषतिलपलाशपीलुक्षारैर्गोक्षीराजक्षीरैर्वा कदलीवज्रकन्दप्रतीवपो मार्दवकरः ॥ कZ_०२.१२.०९ ॥
A flux-addition (pratīvāpa) made from the alkaline ashes of barley, black-gram, sesame, palāśa, and pīlu—together with cow’s milk or goat’s milk—and including banana (kadalī) and vajrakanda, produces softness/malleability.
Sutra 10
यदपि शतसहस्रधा विभिन्नं भवति मृदु त्रिभिरेव तन्निषेकैः ॥ कZ_०२.१२.१०च्द् ॥
Even if it becomes split into hundreds and thousands (of fragments), it turns soft by only three pourings/soakings (niṣeka) of that mixture.
Sutra 11
गोदन्तशृङ्गप्रतीवापो मृदुस्तम्भनः ॥ कZ_०२.१२.११ ॥
A flux-addition (pratīvāpa) of cow-tooth and horn yields a mild “stiffening/setting” effect (stambhana).
Sutra 12
भारिकः स्निग्धो प्रस्तरधातुर्भूमिभागो वा पिङ्गलो हरितः पाटलो लोहितो वा ताम्रधातुः ॥ कZ_०२.१२.१२ ॥
Copper ore/metal is heavy, unctuous-looking and soft; it is found as a stony ore or as a vein/patch in the earth; its color is tawny, green, pale-red, or red.
Sutra 13
काकमोचकः कपोतरोचनावर्णः श्वेतराजिनद्धो वा विस्रः सीसधातुः ॥ कZ_०२.१२.१३ ॥
Lead ore/metal is ‘kākamocaka’, of the color of pigeon-rocanā, or marked with white streaks; it has a foul odor.
Sutra 14
ऊषरकर्बुरः पक्वलोष्ठवर्णो वा त्रपुधातुः ॥ कZ_०२.१२.१४ ॥
Tin ore/metal is mottled like saline/alkaline soil (ūṣara-karbura), or of the color of a ripe clod (pakva-loṣṭha).
Sutra 15
खरुम्बः पाण्डुरोहितः सिन्दुवारपुष्पवर्णो वा तीक्ष्णधातुः ॥ कZ_०२.१२.१५ ॥
‘Tīkṣṇa’ metal/ore (sharp/strong metal—typically iron/steel class) is ‘kharumba’; it is pale-reddish, or of the color of sinduvāra flowers.
Sutra 16
काकाण्डभुजपत्त्रवर्णो वा वैकृन्तकधातुः ॥ कZ_०२.१२.१६ ॥
Vaikṛntaka-ore is identified as having the color of a crow’s egg, or of the leaf of the bhujapattra (birch).
Sutra 17
अच्छः स्निग्धः सप्रभो घोषवान् शीतस्तीव्रस्तनुरागश्च मणिधातुः ॥ कZ_०२.१२.१७ ॥
Gem-ore is (characterized as) clear, glossy, lustrous, resonant (when struck), cool (to the touch), hard/keen, and having a faint tint.
Sutra 18
धातुसमुत्थं तज्जातकर्मान्तेषु प्रयोजयेत् ॥ कZ_०२.१२.१८ ॥
Materials produced from an ore should be employed in the corresponding industries that arise from that ore.
Sutra 19
कृतभाण्डव्यवहारमेकमुखमत्ययं चान्यत्र कर्तृक्रेतृविक्रेतृऋणां स्थापयेत् ॥ कZ_०२.१२.१९ ॥
He should record transactions in finished goods through a single authorized channel, and register defaults/arrears separately—assigning responsibility among the maker, buyer, seller, and debtor.
Sutra 20
आकरिकमपहरन्तमष्टगुणं दापयेदन्यत्र रत्नेभ्यः ॥ कZ_०२.१२.२० ॥
If a mine-worker/leaseholder steals, he should be made to pay eightfold—except in the case of gems (where a different rule applies).
Sutra 21
स्तेनमनिसृष्टोपजीविनं च बद्धं कर्म कारयेत्दण्डोपकारिणं च ॥ कZ_०२.१२.२१ ॥
A thief and one who lives by an unauthorized occupation should be put in bonds and made to work; likewise, one who is to be punished (or who is liable to penalty) should be compelled into labor.
Sutra 22
व्ययक्रियाभारिकमाअकरं भागेन प्रक्रयेण वा दद्यात् लाघविकमात्मना कारयेत् ॥ कZ_०२.१२.२२ ॥
A mine that is heavy in expenditure and operations should be granted on a share basis or for a fixed fee; a mine that is easy to run should be operated directly by the state.
Sutra 23
लोहाध्यक्षस्ताम्रसीसत्रपुवैकृन्तकारकूटवृत्तकंसताललोहकर्मान्तान् कारयेत् लोहभाण्डव्यवहारं च ॥ कZ_०२.१२.२३ ॥
The Superintendent of Metals should run the workshops for copper, lead, tin, vaikṛntaka, ārakūṭa, vṛtta-kaṃsa, tāla (bell-metal/bronze), and iron—and also regulate trade in metal goods.
Sutra 24
लक्षणाध्यक्षश्चतुर्भागताम्रं रूप्यरूपं तीक्ष्णत्रपुसीसाञ्जनानामन्यतममाषबीजयुक्तं कारयेत्पणमर्धपणं पादमष्टभागमिति पादाजीवं ताम्ररूपं माषकमर्धमाषकं काकणीमर्धकाकणीमिति ॥ कZ_०२.१२.२४ ॥
The Superintendent of Mint-marks/Assay should have coins made: a silver coin alloyed with one-fourth copper; and (other issues) made from fine tin, lead, or añjana (a mineral/metallic additive), mixed with a measured seed-weight (māṣa/āṣa standard). Denominations should be struck as: paṇa, half-paṇa, quarter (pāda), and one-eighth (aṣṭabhāga); and copper issues as: māṣaka, half-māṣaka, kākaṇī, and half-kākaṇī.
Sutra 25
रूपदर्शकः पणयात्रां व्यावहारिकीं कोशप्रवेश्यां च स्थापयेत् ॥ कZ_०२.१२.२५ ॥
The Coin-Examiner should establish a system for the circulation/handling of money in ordinary transactions, and for money that must be deposited into the treasury.
Sutra 26
रूपिकमष्टकं शतम् पञ्चकं शतं व्याजीम् पारीक्षिकमष्टभागिकं शतम् पञ्चविंशतिपणमत्ययं च अन्यत्रकर्तृक्रेतृविक्रेतृपरीक्षितृभ्यः ॥ कZ_०२.१२.२६ ॥
He shall levy: a «rūpika» fee at the rate of eight per hundred; a «vyājī» charge at the rate of five per hundred; an assay/verification fee («pārīkṣika») at the rate of one-eighth per hundred; and, additionally, a penalty surcharge of twenty-five paṇas—except in cases attributable to the artisan/producer, the buyer, the seller, or the examiner.
Sutra 27
खन्यध्यक्षः शङ्खवज्रमणिमुक्ताप्रवालक्षारकर्मान्तान् कारयेत्पणनव्यवहारं च ॥ कZ_०२.१२.२७ ॥
The Superintendent of Mines shall cause the production/processing establishments for conch, diamond, precious stones, pearls, coral, and alkali to function, and shall also regulate their buying and selling transactions.
Sutra 28
लवणाध्यक्षः पाकमुक्तं लवणभागं प्रक्रयं च यथाकालं संगृह्णीयाद्विक्रयाच्च मूल्यं रूपं व्याजीं च ॥ कZ_०२.१२.२८ ॥
The Superintendent of Salt shall collect, at the proper time, the salt share (due to the state) and the purchase-price/advance (prakraya) for salt released for processing; and from sales he shall collect the price, along with the ‘rūpa’ fee and the ‘vyājī’ levy.
Sutra 29
आगन्तुलवणं षड्भागं दद्यात् ॥ कZ_०२.१२.२९ ॥
Salt brought in from outside (incoming salt) shall pay a one-sixth share.
Sutra 30
दत्तभागविभागस्य विक्रयः पञ्चकं शतं व्याजीं रूपं रूपिकं च ॥ कZ_०२.१२.३० ॥
On the sale of salt (or salt allotments) after the allotted shares have been divided, a five-per-hundred ‘vyājī’ levy shall be taken, along with the ‘rūpa’ and ‘rūpika’ charges.
Sutra 31
क्रेता शुल्कं राजपण्यच्छेदानुरूपं च वैधरणं दद्यात् अन्यत्र क्रेता षट्छतमत्ययं च ॥ कZ_०२.१२.३१ ॥
The buyer shall pay the duty (śulka) and a ‘vaidharaṇa’ charge in accordance with the official classification/standard of the king’s commodities; otherwise, the buyer shall also incur a penalty of six hundred (paṇas).
Sutra 32
विलवणमुत्तमं दण्डं दद्यादनिषृष्टोपजीवी चान्यत्र वानप्रस्थेभ्यः ॥ कZ_०२.१२.३२ ॥
One dealing in unauthorized salt shall pay the highest fine; and likewise one who lives by an unpermitted means—except in the case of forest-dwellers (vānaprasthas).
Sutra 33
श्रोत्रियास्तपस्विनो विष्टयश्च भक्तलवणं हरेयुः ॥ कZ_०२.१२.३३ ॥
Learned Vedic scholars (śrotriyas), ascetics, and those on compulsory labor (viṣṭi) shall receive rations and salt (bhakta-lavaṇa).
Sutra 34
अतोऽन्यो लवणक्षारवर्गः शुल्कं दद्यात् ॥ कZ_०२.१२.३४ ॥
Accordingly, any other class of salt and alkali products shall pay duty.
Sutra 35
एवं मूल्यं च भागं च व्याजीं परिघमत्ययम् ॥ कZ_०२.१२.३५अब् ॥
Thus are to be applied: the price, the share (due), the ‘vyājī’ levy, the ‘parigha’ charge, and penalties.
Sutra 36
एवं सर्वेषु पण्येषु स्थापयेन्मुखसंग्रहम् ॥ कZ_०२.१२.३६च्द् ॥
In the same manner, for all commodities he shall establish ‘front-end collection’—designated intake/collection points for receipt and accounting.
Sutra 37
पृथिवी कोशदण्डाभ्यां प्राप्यते कोशभूषणा ॥ कZ_०२.१२.३७च्द् ॥
Territory (pṛthivī) is obtained through treasury and coercive power; and it, in turn, becomes an ornament—an enhancement—of the treasury.
Certified metals and controlled refining increase stable revenue, reliable coinage and procurement, and reduce fraud in wages and trade—thereby strengthening kośa and enabling public security expenditure (danda, durga maintenance, and army supply).
This chapter does not state a specific fine, but within Book 2’s superintendent framework, misreporting ores, adulteration/substitution, theft from mines, or tampering with state refining would be treated as economic offenses: confiscation of illicit gain, fines proportional to loss, and punitive action against responsible workers/officials under the relevant adhyakṣa’s disciplinary powers.